The Book of Exodus tells the story of God’s deliverance of His people out of bondage in Egypt and God’s deliverance of His law to those people through the mediatorship of Moses. These twin themes in Exodus are closely bound together showing that Israel was not only saved from a life of slavery but were saved for a life of blessing as God’s chosen people. The book begins with a description of the oppression under which they suffered and closes with the glory of the Lord filling the tabernacle as God descended to dwell among His people wherever they would travel. Within this narrative context many statutes and rules are given for how Israel is supposed to live as a holy nation and kingdom of priests. One such set of laws that are repeatedly emphasized throughout the book of Exodus are the prohibitions concerning the Sabbath. The Mosaic laws against Sabbath breaking could be categorized as ceremonial, civil, and moral, using the classical three-fold division of the law. They are ceremonial in that they concern the proper worship of God in setting one day aside as holy unto the Lord. They are civil in that breaking the Sabbath laws was a crime punishable by the state. Finally, the command to remember the Sabbath day is part of the Ten Words of God, which serve as a summary of God’s universal, moral law. The fact that the Sabbath laws cannot be easily categorized within the Mosaic law speaks to their complexity of purpose and their abiding significance to the people of God.
The Purpose of the Jewish Sabbath
It is important to note that the Sabbath laws do not appear just once in Exodus but are stated four times at especially significant locations. In addition to chapter 20:8 in the giving of the Ten Words, they are repeated in 23:9-12, 31:12-17, and 35:1-3. The Ten Words carved into the stone tablets by Moses provide a basic moral code that transcends the particularities of the covenant God made with Israel at Sinai. John Calvin writes that the “inward law…written, even engraved, upon the hearts of all, in a sense asserts the very same things that are to be learned from the two Tables” and was republished on the tablets to guard against the fallenness of man that tends to distort or fail to grasp what is acceptable worship of God through the natural law.[1] The Ten Words serve to convict people of their sin, for as St. Paul writes, “I would not have known sin except through the law. For I would not have known covetousness unless the law had said, ‘You shall not covet.’” (Rom. 7:7, NKJV). However, the Ten Words also present to us a summary of the blessed life. Within them the fourth commandment serves as a bridge connecting man’s vertical obligations to God with his horizontal obligations to his neighbor.[2] Worship is owed to God, and rest is owed to our bodies, as well as those who serve us, both our neighbors as well as our animals.
The Sabbath restrictions are restated in Exodus 23:9-12 in the context of Israel’s treatment of strangers in the land, opening with the command not to “oppress a stranger, for you know the heart of a stranger, because you were strangers in the land of Egypt,” and closing with a reference to the refreshment of the stranger (NKJV). The observance of the Sabbath was a reminder to the people of Israel that they were once slaves to a tyrannical master who did not allow them to enjoy rest. God had delivered them from slavery that they might have rest, and the observance of the Sabbath would serve as a reminder that they were called to extend that rest to the stranger in the land as well as their fellow countrymen.[3] Rather than getting so caught up in their own personal goals and pursuits, the specific command to do no work on that day would allow for a time of remembrance of their estate apart from God’s deliverance.
The Sabbath laws are repeated a third time in chapter 31:12-17 as Yahweh concludes his instructions to Moses concerning the design of the tabernacle. Just before Moses is given the tablets to take down the mountain to the people of God, he is reminded once again to tell the people of Israel to keep the Sabbaths accompanied by a warning that those who should do any work on this day were to be put to death. This is the very last instruction Moses receives for now the third time. We are reminded at this point in the narrative of the freedom the children of Israel were called to live out. The end of the law is rest. The end of God’s instructions to Moses is the reminder to keep the Sabbath. Previous to this command, Moses had been given instructions for building the Tabernacle in chapters 30 and 31, which points directly toward the need for rest, which can only come through the worship of the one true God.
The instructions regarding the Sabbath are repeated once more in Exodus 34 and 35:1-3 upon the renewal of the covenant between Yahweh and the people of Israel. Moses had taken the tablets down from the mountain in Exodus 32 and found the people worshipping the golden calf. Moses smashed the tablets in his anger and meted out punishment to the offenders. After pleading with God on behalf of the people, Moses was called up to Mount Sinai once again to create two new tablets of stone. Once again, Yahweh repeats the command that six days are for work and the seventh is for rest (34:21). After Moses descends from the mountain a second time with his face glowing, he assembled the congregation of Israel to speak to them. The first command that he gives them from the Lord is the Sabbath law along with the warning that violators will be put to death. At this point it is hard to miss the fact that the Sabbath laws are a point of emphasis at Sinai. A failure to keep the Sabbath is a failure to see the whole point of Israel’s deliverance from Egypt.
The particular Sabbath laws given to Israel were accompanied by a specific sanction. Failure to keep the Sabbath regulations as spelled out in Leviticus 25 would result in the people of Israel being scattered among the nations so that the land would enjoy its sabbath rests from which it had been deprived (Lev. 26:33-34). The chronicler recorded that the people of Judah remained seventy years in exile to fulfil Jeremiah’s prophecy that the land would lie fallow to rest for the sabbaths that had been denied to it (2 Chr. 36:21). The land needed the rest and would vomit the people out when they corrupted it (Lev. 18:28). These are unique sanctions meant to punish the specific Sabbath commands given to Israel for the purpose of keeping them separate and distinct from the world.
Having identified the context in which the Sabbath commands are given in the book of Exodus, we next address the theological significance of Israel’s Sabbath commands. Requiring an abstention from work on the Sabbath forces man to trust in the sovereignty of God. It serves as a reminder that it is God who has given them everything and it is God who will sustain them even if they are not actively working. Commentator Gary North puts it this way:
The sabbatical week is designed to persuade covenant man that he can trust God for one day per week. It breaks man of his spirit of self-centeredness. By resting from his labors on the sabbath, man learns to rest his mind and soul as well. He sees, week by week, that life goes on, that the system holds, even though he has not worked for one day in seven. This self-discipline is designed to increase his faith in the sustaining providence of God.[4]
Just as the people of Israel had to trust God to sustain them in the wilderness by providing them with manna, the people would need to continue to rely on God in the promised land to provide for them even if they ceased from toil for a day in order to honor and worship the creator.[5] Furthermore, the Sabbath served theologically as a foretaste of the eternal rest which was to come through the sacrifice of Christ. St. Paul writes in 1 Corinthians 10 that the crossing of the Red Sea was a baptism of the people of Israel into Moses and that the rock that followed the people in the wilderness and supplied water to them was Christ. These things were Old Testament sacraments that corresponded to baptism and the Eucharist in the New Testament. Likewise, we could say that the Sabbath laws were sacramental in serving as outward signs of inward spiritual realities, namely the eternal rest that comes through the peace of Christ.
The fulfillment of the jewish sabbath
In the New Testament, Jesus fulfills the Sabbath both in his ministry on earth and in his death and resurrection. If the point of the old covenant Sabbath laws was to allow oneself to experience a time of rest and extend the same to neighbor, Jesus faithfully provided rest to those in need of healing on the Sabbath. When questioned by the Pharisees for healing on the Sabbath, Jesus asked them if they would not pull their own son or their own animal out of a pit on the Sabbath (Lk. 14:5). If they would provide such rest for their child or their animal to prevent further suffering, why should not Jesus also extend mercy by healing those plagued by demons or physical ailments? By refraining from labor on the Sabbath, the children of Israel should have been freed up to perform acts of mercy and charity toward their neighbor rather than take pride in how little work they could perform on that day. When confronted by the Pharisees for allowing his disciples to pick grains of wheat to eat on the Sabbath, Jesus reminded them that the Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath (Mk. 2:27). Jesus taught that the Sabbath was designed from the beginning to be a source of freedom over against the slavery Israel had experienced in Egypt and not a burden to them. The death and resurrection of Christ fulfilled the Sabbath laws of the old covenant since those who are in Christ now experience the reality to which the Sabbath laws only served as a signpost. Christians fulfill the Sabbath when we rest in Christ’s work on the cross for our sins. Thus, it is not necessary to worship or to abstain from work on Saturdays as Israel did under the old covenant.
Following the teaching of Jesus, the Apostle Paul warned against the Gentiles in Galatia attempting to enter into the covenant by performing the works of the Jewish law. Paul specifically addresses circumcision, which was a sign of God’s covenant with the family of Abraham but was not the basis for God’s covenant with Abraham, who was accounted righteous by faith and not through the works of the law. Like circumcision, the keeping of the Sabbath laws would do nothing to bring Gentiles closer to God. St. John Chrysostom writes in his second homily on Galatians,
A fear to omit the sabbath plainly shows that you fear the Law as still in force; and if the Law is needful, it is so as a whole, not in part, nor in one commandment only; and if as a whole, the righteousness which is by faith is little by little shut out. If thou keep the sabbath, why not also be circumcised? And if circumcised, why not also offer sacrifices? If the Law is to be observed, it must be observed as a whole, nor not at all.[6]
Insistence upon keeping the Sabbath laws, like circumcision, would in effect render Christ’s sacrifice meaningless, substituting the temporary physical rest of one day in seven for the eternal spiritual rest found in the forgiveness of sin. Readers of St. Paul understood that this would be foolishness. Thus, Eusebius of Caesarea testifies in the fourth century that it was the practice of the early church paralleled the experience of the Old Testament saints prior to the giving of the Mosaic law in that
They did not care about circumcision of the body, neither do we. They did not care about observing Sabbaths, nor do we. They did not avoid certain kinds of food, neither did they regard the other distinctions which Moses first delivered to their posterity to be observed as symbols; nor do Christians of the present day do such things.[7]
It is clear from the testimony of the New Testament and the early church that no one recognized a need for Christians to observe the Jewish Sabbath.
the continuing significance of the lord’s day
At this point in the discussion, however, an important distinction needs to be made. While the Hebrew Sabbath laws and the corresponding sanctions attached to them concerning the land were fulfilled by Christ, we must recognize that they were merely an instantiation of the broader principle of the Sabbath rooted in God’s character and displayed in his act of creation. Does the fact that Christ fulfilled the Sabbath laws given to Moses mean that the creational principle of six days of labor to one day of rest nullified? Throughout the history of the church in the west, the first day of the week was set aside as the Lord’s day for worship and for rest. In the very first century, Christians began to gather for the worship of God on Sunday as the new Sabbath. In the Didache, we find the command,
On the day of the resurrection of the Lord, that is, the Lord’s day, assemble yourselves together, without fail, giving thanks to God, and praising Him for those mercies God has bestowed upon you through Christ, and has delivered you from ignorance, error, and bondage, that your sacrifice may be unspotted, and acceptable to God.[8]
In the Epistle of Barnabas, dated to the second century, the celebration of the Lord’s day is connected to the former Jewish Sabbath.
Moreover God says to the Jews, ‘Your new moons and Sabbaths 1 cannot endure.’ You see how he says, ‘The present Sabbaths are not acceptable to me, but the Sabbath which I have made in which, when I have rested [heaven: Heb 4] from all things, I will make the beginning of the eighth day which is the beginning of another world.’ Wherefore we Christians keep the eighth day for joy, on which also Jesus arose from the dead and when he appeared ascended into heaven.[9]
Likewise, Eusebius of Caesarea writes in his commentary on Psalm 91 in the fourth century that
Through the New Covenant the logos transferred and transposed the feast of the Sabbath to the dawning of the light, and delivered to us an icon of true rest, the saving and lordly and first day of the light, according to which the Savior of the cosmos, after all his actions among men, having gained the victory against death, mounted up and beyond the heavenly gates, going beyond the six-day creation of the cosmos, and receiving the divinely-befitting Sabbath and the thrice-blessed rest of the Father.[10]
In other words, Christ gives us a new picture (icon) of what true rest is supposed to look like that is superior to the old Sabbath. If the Jewish Sabbath was based on the fact that God rested after six days of labor, the new Sabbath is based on the resurrection of Christ which confirmed the victory of God over death and sin. Thus, the new Sabbath is the first day of the week and marked not just by inactivity, but by the worship of God. Eusebius argues that the rest of God that Christians are called to enter into is not a physical rest from physical labor, but a “Sabbath of the intellect,” an abandoning of mortal labors to do the works of God. As the Father and the Son are working “even until now” (Jn. 5.17), Christians are also to labor in their service to God and this is what it means to enter into God’s rest. “[W]hen they are set free from the works that weary the soul…and they become wholly given to the occupation and contemplation of God and of divine and noetic things, it is then they are observing the Sabbaths dear to God and a rest to the Lord God.”[11] How is it that the church fathers could make these connections between the Jewish Sabbath and the Lord’s day and insist that the first day of the week be set aside for worship and rest? Because as even the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England affirm, the church has the authority to decree rights and ceremonies of the church so long as it is not repugnant to the Word of God.[12] Since the testimony of the book of Acts is that the New Testament church gathered on the first day of the week for the breaking of bread and the bringing of offerings (Acts 20:7; I Cor. 16:2), it is reasonable that the early church should designate Sunday, the first day of the week on which the Lord was resurrected as the day of worship for the church. Those who continued to uphold this “Christian Sabbath” on Sunday as a day for offering sacrifices of praise in worship were not Jewish legalists insisting the reinstitution of the Mosaic laws that were intended to point toward their fulfillment in Christ as the Judaizers that Paul warns against in Galatians. On the contrary, like the priests who worked on the Sabbath under the old covenant, Christians are a nation of priests under the new covenant whose Sabbath rest is not a rest from God’s service, but to delight in the worship of God.[13]
While the Sabbath in the new Covenant goes beyond the six-day creation model as Eusebius says, it should not be thought of as something less than this. In other words, grace redeems and perfects nature, but it does not replace it. Human beings still have natures that are created in the image of God. God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. If God rested from his work on the seventh day and man is made in God’s image, man must have time to rest as well. St. John Chrysostom argues in his Homilies on the Statutes that the lengthy explanation given for the fourth commandment (Ex. 20:4) in contrast to the absence of any explanation given for most of the Ten Commandments points to its temporary nature. The reason it needed the longer explanation linking it back to the creation, says Chrysostom, is because it was not a universal command that people would recognize as being part of the natural law.[14] It is legitimate here to read Chrysostom as speaking of the specific application of the Sabbath principle that was required of the Hebrews that was “partial and temporary” and “abolished afterwards” and not the principle itself that needed explanation.
The need for rest and for the worship of the true and living God is indeed part of natural revelation. It is for this reason St. Augustine describes the human heart that is not directed in its affections toward the Creator as being “restless.”[15] The Sabbath was not instituted merely as a means to serve the end of keeping Israel separate from the nations around them but was the means by which the children of Israel would experience the blessing of rest and worship of God, for whom their souls naturally longed. God knows man better than man knows himself and understands that man not only should rest but must rest and worship. The creational principle of Sabbath rest that applies to all men does not carry with it the particular sanctions applied to Israel. Christians will not be driven into exile if they fail to follow the Mosaic law on Sabbath restrictions, but the ability to trust God to leave aside one’s work and dedicate time for worship and rest is as necessary today as ever. It will not do to push the New Testament application of the Sabbath off to the future of eternal rest that will be enjoyed at the return of Christ at the consummation of history. For we still live as human beings in between the time of Christ’s ascension and the final resurrection of man. John Calvin asks rhetorically, “Who can deny that these two things [the need to worship and rest] apply as much to us as to the Jews?”[16] James Jordan likewise writes, “But as long as we remain in the Old Creation, in bodies of the first Adam (pre-resurrection), the pattern of rest and festivity set out in the Old Testament is applicable to us.”[17] Grace restores nature, but it does not abolish it. If man was created in God’s image and needed a day of rest and worship in his state of innocence prior to the giving of the Mosaic law, he is still needful of this after the Mosaic law has been abolished.
the reformers on the sabbath
During the rise of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, there was renewed interest in reforming the worship of God and eliminating what the Reformers saw as medieval accretions that had been added to the laws of Scripture. However, this renewed emphasis on setting aside the Lord’s day for rest and worship was not a return to the enforcement of the Jewish Sabbath. Thus, Calvin writes in his Institutes,
[W]e transcend Judaism in observing these days because we are far different from the Jews in this respect. For we are not celebrating it as a ceremony with the most rigid scrupulousness, supposing a spiritual mystery to be figured thereby. Rather, we are using it as a remedy needed to keep order in the church.[18]
The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, adopted in 1571 are silent about what is permitted on the Lord’s day and the Heidelberg Catechism, the chief catechism in the continental Protestant tradition, speaks only of worship, partaking in the sacraments, and resting from evil deeds on the Lord’s day.
In the seventeenth century, more radical reformers sought to enforce a stricter observance of the Sabbath which stipulated what practices were and were not appropriate for a proper observance of the Lord’s day. Scottish Presbyterians and English Puritans, believing the Church of England did not go far enough in its reforms, produced a more detailed statement of faith in 1647. It is in the Westminster Confession of Faith that Lord’s day activities are strictly limited to public worship, rest, acts of mercy, and the forsaking of any “worldly employments and recreations.”[19] Even if Presbyterians and Puritans were overly specific in regulating what Christians could and could not do on a Sunday, it was not their position that the Jewish Sabbath was still in force for Christians. On the contrary, they root the duty of worshipping on the Sunday in the “light of nature” and on the testimony of Scripture that Christ rose on the first day of the week.[20] Therefore, it would not be a sufficient refutation of their position to simply point out that Jesus fulfilled the Jewish Sabbath. For that is not the point at issue. Whether one is a strict Sabbatarian or not, there is no difference in doctrine in regard to the keeping of the Jewish Sabbath. All parties would agree that it is fulfilled in Christ.[21]
The real issue is whether the Lord’s Day should be enforced by law as the Sabbath was in the Old Testament or if it is merely a matter of individual conscience. In other words, while the specific sanctions of the old covenant are no longer applicable, given the fact that the principle behind the Jewish Sabbath is rooted in creation, is there a corresponding sanction in the law of nature that could or should be enforced to promote the rest and worship of God on the Lord’s Day?
Commentators like James Jordan and Gary North—though as theonomists they would affirm that the Mosaic law is still relevant for the church in the present—would deny that the state has a role in enforcing the observance of the Christian Sabbath in the new covenant era.[22] Jason DeRouchie, representing a more mainstream evangelical viewpoint, would deny that the state has any role in promoting religion or enforcing religious faith or practice, but serves a strictly secular function.[23] However, Stephen Wolfe, drawing on the Reformed natural law tradition, argues that enforcement of religious observances on the Christian Sabbath is a prudential matter within the state’s right to enforce, depending upon the circumstances. At the very least, Wolfe writes, the state can use its God ordained power to indirectly promote the worship of God on the Sabbath by eliminating obstacles or distractions to worship.
Since even the most godly of men are easily drawn to earthly concerns on the Sabbath, the prince must, to the furthest extent possible, remove the earthly temptations and distractions of this world so that his people’s attention is on God and the heavenly kingdom. Sabbath laws train people in virtue; they are pedagogical.[24]
This is consistent with the theology of the Book of Common Prayer in which we pray that the civil magistrate will promote true religion and virtue and punish wickedness and vice.[25] This does not mean that the state may regulate spiritual matters or has the ability to impose its will on the conscience, but it does have the duty to order temporal matters toward the promotion of spiritual goods.
conclusion
In conclusion, the Sabbath commands in the Mosaic law are fulfilled in Christ and are no longer binding on anyone. However, Christians should not conclude that the fulfillment of the Sabbath means that creational principle on which the Mosaic law is based is no longer relevant to how they are to live in the present. Man still needs rest and is by nature a worshipper. Based on the practice in the New Testament and the authority of the historic church, the first day of the week, upon which Jesus Christ rose from the dead, has been set aside as the day of worship. While the legal sanctions of the old covenant are not enforceable against Christians in the new covenant, it is reasonable that a Christian people would formulate civil laws that are in alignment with man’s nature and are conducive to the promotion of true religion. It is desirable that a Christian magistrate would wield the sword to promote a nation’s good and protect it from evil. Therefore, the fact that the Jewish Sabbath is no longer in force does not of necessity preclude the possibility of Sabbath restrictions imposed by the state or promoted by the church that would facilitate the worship and rest of people made in the image of God.
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Notes
[1] John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 2.8.2, trans. Ford Lewis Battles, in The Library of Christian
Classics: Volume XX, ed. John T. McNeill (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press), 368.
[2] Vern S. Poythress, The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses, (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 1991), 88.
[3] Gary North, Tools of Dominion: The Case Laws of Exodus, (Tyler TX: Institute for Christian Economics, 1990), 812-813.
[4] North, Tools of Dominion, 816.
[5] Ibid.
[6] St. John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians 2.17, trans. Oxford Translations Revised, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 13 ed. Philip Schaff (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 2004), 21.
[7] Eusebius of Caesarea, The Church History, 1.4.8, trans. Arthur Cushman McGiffert in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1 ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 2004), 87.
[8] The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, XIV, trans. M.B. Riddle, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 7, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2004), 381.
[9] Barnabas, Epistle, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1 ed. Philip Schaff (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 2004), 147.
[10] Eusebius, Commentary on Psalm 91. trans Justin Gohl.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Article XX. Of the Authority of the Church. The Church hath power to decree Rites or Ceremonies, and authority in Controversies of Faith: and yet it is not lawful for the Church to ordain any thing that is contrary to God’s Word written, neither may it so expound one place of Scripture, that it be repugnant to another. Wherefore, although the Church be a witness and a keeper of Holy Writ, yet, as it ought not to decree any thing against the same, so besides the same ought it not to enforce any thing to be believed for necessity of Salvation.
[13] Eusebius, Commentary on Psalm 91.
[14] St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Statutes, 12.9, trans. Oxford Library of the Fathers in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 9 ed. Philip Schaff (Peabody, Mass: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 2004), 422. “For what purpose then I ask did He add a reason respecting the Sabbath, but did no such thing in regard to murder? Because this commandment was not one of the leading ones. It was not one of those which were accurately defined of our conscience, but a kind of partial and temporary one; and for this reason it was abolished afterwards. But those which are necessary and uphold our life, are the following: ‘Thou shalt not kill; Thou shalt not commit adultery; Thou shalt not steal.’ On this account then He adds no reason in this case, nor enters into any instruction on the matter, but is content with the bare prohibition.”
[15] St. Augustine, Confessions, trans. by F. J. Sheed. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1993), 3.
[16] Calvin, Institutes, 2.8.32
[17] James B. Jordan, The Law of the Covenant (Powder Springs, GA, 2022), 181-182.
[18] Calvin, Institutes, 2.8.33
[19] Westminster Confession of Faith, XXI.VIII
[20] Ibid., XXI.I and XXI.VII
[21] The mistake of the Westminster divines, in this author’s view, is that they too strongly insisted that the creation ordinance must be respected by all people in all ages in the same way it was required to be observed by Israel living under Mosaic law. According to WCF XXI.VII, the Sabbath commandment is binding on men of all ages “from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ.” While they clearly distinguish between the Jewish Sabbath and the Christian Lord’s day, their methodology reads the fourth commandment back into the creation account rather than seeing the commandment as a particular application of the creational principle. This runs contrary to Eusebius who in his history of the Early Church states that the saints prior to Moses had no regard for the Jewish Sabbath laws.
[22] North, Tools of Dominion, 822 (“God now assigns to individuals the responsibility of deciding how to observe the sabbath.”).
[23] Jason Derouchie, Delighting in the Old Testament: Through Christ and For Christ (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2024), .
[24] Stephen Wolfe, The Case for Christian Nationalism (Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 2022), 320-321.
[25] The Book of Common Prayer: And Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, According to the Use of the Reformed Episcopal Church in North America, Together with the Psalter or Psalms of David, fifth (Philadelphia, Pa.: Standing Liturgical Commission of the Reformed Episcopal Church, 2013), 105.
